Píamadre (meninge interna)

La píamadre es la parte más capa más delgada y más interna de las meninges que envuelve y protege el cerebro y médula espinal. La misma tapiza las circunvoluciones del cerebro, adentrándose hasta el fondo de surcos y cisuras.

La píamadre suministra flujo sanguíneo a las áreas superficiales de la corteza y sostiene vasos sanguíneos importantes que pasan por la superficie del cerebro. Las formaciones coroides son dependencias de la piamadre y se aplican contra la membrana ependimaria de los ventrículos. La piamadre forma las telas coroideas, de donde nacen los plexos coroideos. De esta manera se insinúan en la hendidura cerebral de bichat (entre el cerebro y el cerebelo) y da origen: En la línea media a la tela coroidea superior y a los plexos coroideos medianos. Lateramente: a los plexos coroideos de los ventrículos laterales.

Líquido cefalorraquídeo

El líquido cefalorraquídeo es un líquido transparente que rellena las cavidades del encéfalo y la médula espinal, circulando por el espacio subaracnoideo, los ventrículos cerebrales y el canal medular central con un volumen entre 100 y 150 ml en condiciones normales.

Cuando hay una infección, el líquido cefalorraquídeo puede enturbiarse por la presencia de leucocitos o la presencia de pigmentos biliares. Numerosas enfermedades alteran su composición y su estudio es importante y con frecuencia determinante en las infecciones meníngeas, carcinomatosis y hemorragias. También es útil en el estudio de las enfermedades desmielinizantes del sistema nervioso central o periférico.

El líquido cefalorraquídeo es producido en un 70% en los plexos coroideos de los cuatro ventrículos cerebrales, sobre todo los laterales y 30% en el epéndimo a razón de 0.35 ml/minuto ó 500 ml/día. Un adulto tiene 150 ml de éste y se renueva cada 3 ó 4 horas. La eliminación del líquido cefalorraquídeo se lleva a cabo a través de las vellosidades aracnoideas, proyección de las células de la aracnoides sobre los senos vasculares que alberga la duramadre. Estos senos desembocarán directamente en el torrente sanguíneo.

Función

El líquido cefalorraquídeo desempeña tres funciones muy importantes: 1) mantener flotante el encéfalo, actuando como colchón o amortiguador que proteje el cerebro contra golpes; 2) sirve de vehículo para transportar los nutrientes al cerebro y eliminar los desechos; 3) fluir entre el cráneo y la médula espinal para compensar los cambios en el volumen de sangre intracraneal (la cantidad de sangre dentro del cerebro), manteniendo una presión constante.

Lose Weight After Giving Birth

Rebecca Romijn (36) claimed to have been lowered as much as 27.2 kg of weight since giving birth twin daughters, Charlie and Dolly, four months ago. This was done without the exercise. According to Ugly Betty's star, is nursing a secret slim. "It was like we had to eat 5. 000 calories a day. If not, we can not provide enough food for them (the children). So, the process is also fun, "Jerry O'Connell's wife ujat this.

Rebecca even felt in the first three weeks he has lost 16 pounds without doing anything. "I can not exercise too much because my daughter twins. There's no way it was back to the training schedule as before, "he added. Nevertheless, he realized that he could not hope to be back to his old form. "There is excess weight that must be removed. "

Could it be an effective way Rebecca was conducted for all new mothers? We know not all women were given the ability to lean back quickly after giving birth. Basically, your weight would go down after birth, but not all. During pregnancy, body weight generally increases between 11 and 16 kg. After childbirth, the amount decreased by approximately 5-7 kg. So, there are still remaining overweight.

Breastfeeding is a good way to accelerate weight loss. Have proven that breastfeeding out certain hormones in the body for the first 12 months after childbirth that helps the uterus return to its form prior to pregnancy. When breastfeeding, whatever we eat will be processed into milk and baby food will take over from you.

In addition to nursing, there is no other way to lose weight but dieting and exercise. However, we must ensure that both have this done by way of a healthy and safe. You can start exercising 40 days after birth. Obviously, choose sports that are not too heavy. This exercise can you copy :

1. Lie down with your spine straight and bend your knees. Keep your feet flat on the floor (or bed) and knee meetings.
2. Slowly move your knee is bent to the right until your right thigh to touch the outside floor. Make sure your upper body (abdomen and chest) facing straight upwards.
3. Then turn it back onto his knees, then to the left so that the outer left thigh touching the floor.
4. Repeat this movement several times. This relaxed motion will improve the stiff joints and relieve back pain after childbirth.

After your condition is strong enough, you can walk for 30 minutes every day. After the better, do jogging as running effectively burn calories. You can use a treadmill to find out how many calories you've wasted. Another way to burn calories is to take care of your own baby by cutting assistance from family or servants.

What about diet ?
You certainly have often heard that a healthy diet, including :

1. Stop eating foods and beverages a sweet tooth. Reduce the sugar from the beverage that you enjoy, stop drink-drink cans, and stay away from cakes, brownies, chocolate, and so forth. More consumption of water.
2. Reduce carbohydrates because carbohydrates turn into sugar in the body and keeps you on the weight when pregnant. If you want to be healthier (because you also still produce milk), look for cookbooks that offer food combining diet is also helpful for slimming.
3. Add fiber to your diet, like fruits and vegetables. Do not forget to keep drinking milk, but select the product or even low-fat milk and yogurt is fat free.
4. Reduce your meal. How many servings are enough for us? Take meat, fish, or chicken, 85 ounces (or about the size of the palm of our hands). Cheese 28 ounces (or about the size of your thumb), and 1 teaspoon butter (the size of your thumb nail).

In order for the hard work is successful, there are three things we need to remember: patience, motivation and trust that you will come back healthy and slim.

Translated from : www. compass. com

Notocorda

La notocorda, también llamada notocordio, es un cuerpo flexible con forma de vara que se encuentra en todos los embriones de todos los cordados. Está formada por células derivadas del mesodermo y de las que definen el eje primitivo del embrión. En los cordados inferiores, persiste durante toda la vida como el principal apoyo axial del cuerpo, mientras que en los cordados superiores (vertebrados) la notocorda es sustituida por la columna vertebral. En el desarrollo embrionario humano el notocordio induce la formación de un surco en el ectodermo (surco neural) que se pliega hacia adentro y luego se cierra para convertirse en el tubo neural, el precursor del cerebro y de la médula espinal.

La notocorda, entre otras más funciones, colabora en la formación de la columna vertebral. Una vez que el organismo alcanza la adultez, lo único que queda de ella es el núcleo pulposo de los discos vertebrales que se encuentran entre vértebra y vértebra de la columna, amortiguando y dando más movilidad a estas articulaciones. Cuando el anillo de cartílago fibroso (situado alrededor del núcleo pulposo) se rompe, el núcleo pulposo se derrama, produciéndose una hernia discal.

Nursing Care Plan for Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)

NCP for Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)

Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)

Definition

Congestive heart failure (CHF) is generally classified as systolic or diastolic heart failure and becomes progressively more common with increasing age.

Systolic heart failure: The pumping action of the heart is reduced or weakened. A common clinical measurement is the ejection fraction (EF). The ejection fraction is a calculation of how much blood is ejected out of the left ventricle (stroke volume), divided by the maximum volume remaining in the left ventricle at the end of diastole or relaxation phase. A normal ejection fraction is greater than 50%. Systolic heart failure has a decreased ejection fraction of less than 50%.

Diastolic heart failure: The heart can contract normally but is stiff, or less compliant, when it is relaxing and filling with blood. This impedes blood filling into the heart and produces backup into the lungs and CHF symptoms. Diastolic heart failure is more common in patients older than 75 years, especially in women with high blood pressure. In diastolic heart failure, the ejection fraction is normal.
http://www.emedicinehealth.com

Causes

Can be classified according to the following changes :

1. Volume overload: especially with left to right shunts that may cause the RV to hypertrophy in order to compensate for the additional blood volume.
2. Pressure overload: resulting from obstructive lesions such as valvular stenosis or coarctation of the aorta.
3. Decreased contractility: primarily factors that affect the contractility of the myocardium, such as cardiomyopathy or myocardial schema from severe anemia or asphyxia, low level of potassium, glucose, calcium or magnesium.
4. High cardiac output demands: in which the body ‘s need for oxygenated blood exceeds the heart out put (even though the volume may be normal), such as in sepsis, hyperthyroidism and severe anemia.

Pathophysiology

Heart failure is often separated into two categories; right sided and left sided failure. In right sided failure, the right ventricle is unable to pump blood effectively into the pulmonary artery resulting in increased pressure in the right atrium and systemic venous circulation. Systemic venous hypertension causes Hepatosplenomegaly and occasionally edema.

In left sided failure, the left ventricle is unable to pump blood into the systemic circulation resulting in increased pressure in the left atrium and pulmonary veins. The lungs become congested with blood, causing elevated pulmonary pressure and pulmonary edema.


Nursing Diagnosis

1. Decreased cardiac out put related to structural defect, myocardial dysfunction.
   
   Goal : The patient will: Exhibit improved cardiac output.
   Expected outcome :
   • Heartbeat is strong, regular and within normal limits for age.
   • Peripheral perfusion is adequate
   
   Nursing Intervention :
   • Administer digoxin (lanoxin) as ordered.
   • Nursing established precaution to prevent toxicity.
   • Often an E.C.G. rhythm strip is taken to assess cardiac status before administration.
   • Ensure adequate intake of K.
   • Monitor serum potassium levels (decrease enhances digoxin toxicity).
   • Administer medications to decrease over load as ordered.
   • Check blood pressure.
   • Observe for signs of hypotension.
   • Monitor electrolyte levels.
2. Ineffective breathing pattern related to pulmonary congestion.
   
   Goal : The patient will: Exhibit improved respiratory function.
   Expected outcome : Respirations remain with normal limits; color is good and infant rest quietly.
   
   Nursing Intervention :
   • Place inclined posture of 30 to 45 degree tilt mattress support of incubator, place older infant in sent (fowler’s position).
   • Avoid any constricting clothing or restraints around abdomen and chest.
   • Administer humidified O2 as prescribed.

Médula espinal

La médula espinal es un cordon largo y fino de forma tubular formado por axones corticales y espinales, más los cuerpos neuronales que se hallan a lo largo de la misma. Se encuentra alojada dentro de la columna vertebral de los animales vertebrados. La médula espinal se extiende desde le bulbo raquídeo hasta el filum terminale; es decir hasta el espacio de la primera y segunda vértebra lumbar. De modo que no abarca toda la extensión de la columna vertebral.

La médula espinal tiene unos 45 cm de longitud en el hombre, y unos 43 cm en la mujer. Fundamentalmente, su función es la de transmitir impulsos nerviosos entre la corteza cerebral y el resto del cuerpo, pero también contiene circuitos nerviosos que pueden controlar en forma autónoma numerosos reflejos. Sin embargo, se puede decir que la médula espinal tiene tres funciones importantes: a) sirve como conducto para la transmisión de impulsos motores; b) sirve como conducto de transmisión de información sensorial; c) sirve como centro de coordinación de reflejos.

Anatomía

La médula espinal tiene cuatro caras: una cara anterior, dos caras laterales y una cara posterior. La cara anterior en la línea media posee una cisura media anterior, limitando lateralmente por los surcos colaterales anteriores, que son los orígenes aparentes de las raíces nerviosas motoras o eferentes de los nervios espinales y que además la separa de las caras laterales. También presenta dos engrosamientos, uno cervical y otro lumbosacro: 'C4' a 'T1' intumescencia cervical: este engrosamiento se debe a las raíces de nervios que van a transmitir sensibilidad y acción motora hacia y desde los miembros superiores (brazo, antebrazo y mano). 'L2' a 'S2' intumescencia lumbosacral: se debe a las raíces de nervios que permiten transmitir la sensibilidad y acción motora hacia y desde los miembros inferiores (muslo, pierna y pie).

La sustancia gris en la médula espinal es interna, rodeada por sustancia blanca, y tiene la forma de una "H" o mariposa en el centro, al contrario que en el encéfalo. Sus mitades se encuentran divididas de forma sagital por dos procesos: en la parte dorsal encontramos el tabique mediano posterior, largo y angosto, y ventralmente la fisura mediana anterior, que es más amplia y corta. Longitudinalmente se divide en 31 segmentos, uno para cada par de nervios; así, los nervios espinales quedan emplazados en ocho cervicales, doce torácicos, cinco lumbares, cinco sacros y uno coccígeo. Cada segmento tiene dos pares de raíces (dorsales y ventrales) situados de forma simétrica en la parte dorsal y ventral.

La sustancia gris está constituida principalmente por neuronas y células de sostén (neuroglía). Presenta dos astas grises anteriores y dos astas grises posteriores unidas por la comisura gris. Esta comisura gris queda dividida en una parte posterior y una anterior por un pequeño agujero central llamado conducto ependimario o epéndimo medular, siendo éste un vestigio del tubo neural primitivo. A nivel torácico y lumbar también aparecen las astas grises laterales en forma de cuña que corresponden a los somas de las neuronas que forman el sistema autónomo simpático o toracolumbar.

Nursing Care Plan for Organic Phosphate Insecticide Poisoning

Organic Phosphate Insecticide Intoxication

Pesticides are all used to eradicate pests, which included the following :

• Insecticides : Especially for insects
• Rodenticides : To eradicate rats
• Herbicide : To eradicate the nuisance plants.

Two kinds of insektisidayang most widely used :

• Hydrochloric hydrocarbon
• Organic phosphate insecticide

Organic Phosphate Insecticide properties
Insecticides kholin esterase inhibitor is the most potent insecticides used in agriculture with high toxicity. Can penetrate normal skin, can be absorbed through the lungs and esophagus, not accumulate in body tissues.

Diagnosis

Clinic
The most prominent is the salivary glands hyperactivity / tears / sweat / urinary / digestive tract of food (abbreviated as SLUD = Salivasi, Lakrimasi, urination and diarrhea), difficulty breathing abnormalities and visual acuity.

• Mild poisoning
  • Anoriksia
  • headaches
  • feeling weak
  • Fear
  • tongue tremor
  • tremor eyelid
  • Pupil miosis
• Moderate Poisoning
  • Nausea, Vomiting, vomiting - Seizures / abdominal cramps, Hipersalivasi, hyperhidrosis, muscle fasciculation, Bradikardi
• Severe poisoning
  • Diarrhoea, Pupil "pin-point", the light reaction (-), Shortness of breath, Sianosos, Pulmonary Edema, Inkonteinensia urine, feces Inkotinensia, convulsions, Coma, Blockade of heart, Finally died

Nursing Assessment

• Vital signs
  • Respiratory Distress
  • Cyanosis
  • Takipnoe
• Neurology
  Organic Phosphate Insecticide causes higher levels of CNS toxicity, its effects include lethargy, sensitive to stimulation, dizziness, stupor and coma.
• GI Tract
  Mouth irritation, burning sensation in the mouth and esophagus mucous membranes, nausea and vomiting.
• Cardiovascular
  Dysrhythmias.
• Dermal
  Skin irritation
• Ocular
  Kurnea burns
• Laboratory
  • Red blood cells were decreased
  • Proteinuria
  • Haematuria
  • Hipoplasi bone marrow

Nursing Diagnosis

High risk of lack of fluid volume associated with loss of body fluids is abnormally
Objective: There was no shortage of liquid
Evaluation criteria:
Adequate fluid balance

• Vital signs stable
• Stable skin turgor
• Mucous membranes moist
• Expenditure normal urine 1-2 cc / kg body weight / hour

Nursing Intervention :

1. Monitor income and expenditure of fluid.
   Rational: Accurate documentation can assist in identifying spending and replacement fluids.
   
2. Monitor the temperature of the skin, palpation of peripheral pulses.
   Rational: cold and moist skin, weak pulse may indicate impairment of peripheral circulation and the need for additional fluid replacement.
3. Note the presence of nausea, vomiting, bleeding
   Rational: Nausea, vomiting and excessive bleeding can refer to hipordemia.
4. Monitor vital signs
   Rational: hypotension, tachycardia, increased respiration indicates the lack of fluid (dehydration / hypovolaemia).
5. Give fluids parinteral in collaboration with his medical team.
   Rational: The liquid parenteral fluid volume required to support / prevent hypotension.
6. Collaboration in the provision antiemetik
   Rational: Antiemetik can eliminate the nausea / vomiting which can cause imbalance of income.
7. Give oral re-entry gradually.
   Rational: Inclusion of peroral dependent upon the return of gastrointestinal function.
8. Monitor laboratory studies (Hb, Ht).
   Rational: As an indicator / kehilanan volume with fluid circulation.

Placa Neural

La placa neural es una estructura plana derivada de la superficie dorsal media engrosada del ectodermo, delante de la fosita primitiva, por encima de la notocorda, que aparece al inicio de la tercera semana de la concepción humana, formada por unas células embrionarias llamadas neuroblastos.

Para que se construya la placa neural es necesario que las células del epiblasto converjan hacia la línea media del disco embrionario formando un surco de la línea primitiva, delimitando un eje longitudinal de simetría bilateral alrededor del cual se alinearán las estructuras embrionarias y sus órganos. Desde este momento el embrión tendrá una región rostral (cefálica) y caudal (cola) así como un lado izquierdo y derecho y una superficie dorsal (atrás) y ventral (adelante).

A partir del plegamiento de la placa neural o neurulación se formará el tubo neural y el desarrollo de todo el sistema nervioso. El desarrollo de la placa neural está mediada por la estimulación a dosis bajas de la proteína morfogenética ósea.

Tubo neural

El tubo neural es una estructura nerviosa que se encuentra durante el desarrollo del embrión de los vertebrados, siendo el precursor del sistema nervioso central. De forma cilíndrica, el tubo neural se deriva de una región específica del ectodermo llamada placa neural, la que aparece al inicio de la tercera semana de la concepción por medio de un proceso llamado neurulación.

El ectodermo se engruesa para formar sobre la notocorda la placa neural. Los bordes de esta placa sobresalen, se pliegan y se unen por encima formando un largo tubo conocido como tubo neural. Este tubo da lugar a la mayor parte del sistema nervioso, anteriormente se ensancha y se diferencia en el encéfalo y los nervios craneales; posteriormente forma la médula espinal y los nervios motores. La mayor parte del sistema nervioso central deriva de las células de la cresta neural, que emigran antes de que el tubo neural se cierre. En la cresta neural se originan los nervios craneales, células de pigmento, cartílago y huesos de la mayor parte del cráneo, incluidas las mandíbulas, ganglios del SNA, médula de las glándulas adrenales.

10 Things Every Woman Should Know About a Man's Brain

10 Things Every Woman Should Know About a Man's Brain - Most popular notions about the male brain are based on studies of men ages 18 to 22 -- undergrads subjecting themselves to experiments for beer money or course credit. But a man's brain varies tremendously over his life span, quickly contradicting the image of the single-minded sex addict that circulates in mainstream consciousness.

From his wandering eye to his desire to mate for life, here's what you need to know about guys' minds

Most popular notions about the male brain are based on studies of men ages 18 to 22

More emotional

While females are usually considered the more emotional gender, infant boys are more emotionally reactive and expressive than infant girls, researchers have found.

Adult men have slightly stronger emotional reactions, too -- but only before they are aware of their feelings, found a 2008 study published in the Scandinavian Journal of Psychology that closely monitored facial expressions. Once the emotion reaches consciousness, however, men adopt a poker face.

When young, boys likely learn to hide emotions that culture considers "unmanly." But tamping down emotion also spurs the body's "fight or flight" response. A man's strong reaction and subsequent suppression may ready him to handle a threat, theorize the 2008 study researchers at Lund University in Sweden.

More vulnerable to loneliness

While loneliness can take a toll on everyone's health and brain, older men seem particularly vulnerable, said Dr. Louann Brizendine, a professor of clinical psychology at the University of California, San Francisco, and author of "The Male Brain" (Broadway, March 2010).

Men tend to reach out less than women, which exacerbates loneliness and the toll it takes on their brains' social circuits, she said.

Living with women may be particularly helpful. Men in stable relationships tend to be healthier, live longer and have hormone levels that may indicate decreased anxiety, studies have shown.

Women might also be good for a guy's gonads. Male mice living with females remained fertile longer than their isolated cousins, found a study published in the Biology of Reproduction in 2009.

Focused on solutions

While many studies suggest that women are more empathetic than men, Dr. Brizendine stresses this is not entirely true. The empathy system of the male brain does respond when someone is stressed or expressing a problem. But the "fix-it" region quickly takes over.

"This hub does a Google search of the entire brain to come up with a solution," said Brizendine. As a result, men tend to be more concerned with fixing a problem than showing solidarity in feeling, she said.

Hard-wired to check out women

While often linked to aggression and hostility, testosterone is also the hormone of the libido. And guys have six times the amount surging through their veins as women, said Pranjal Mehta, a social psychologist at Columbia University in New York.

Mehta and colleagues found that testosterone impairs the impulse-control region of the brain. While it has yet to be studied, this may explain why, as Brizendine says, men ogle women as if on "auto-pilot." They often forget about the woman once she is out of their visual field, Brizendine said.

Must defend turf

"Part of the male job, evolutionarily-speaking, is to defend turf," Brizendine said. More research is needed in humans but in other male mammals, the "defend my turf" brain area is larger than their female counterparts,' she said.

While women too have fits of possessiveness, men are much more likely to become violent when faced with a threat to their love life or territory, she said.

Who's boss?

An unstable hierarchy can cause men considerable anxiety, Brizendine said. But an established chain of command, such as that practiced by the military and many work places, reduces testosterone and curbs male aggression, she said.

Pre-occupation with establishing pecking order, which starts as early as age 6, motivates the "male dance, where they are always putting each other down," Brizendine added. "It is better to be aggressive in a verbal jab than to duke it out," she said.

The mature male brain

Over the course of evolution, men have needed to compete for status and mates while young and emphasize bonding and cooperation when mature, Mehta said.

Men seem to agree; and psychological studies have shown that one-upmanship holds less appeal for older men. Instead, they pay more attention to relationships and bettering the community, Brizendine said.

The change is likely aided by the slow natural decline in testosterone as a man ages. Mehta and colleagues found that men with high testosterone levels tend to be better at one-on-one competition, while those with lower levels excel at competitions requiring team cooperation. The study was published in the journal Hormones and Behavior in 2009.

The father-to-be

The male brain becomes especially primed for cooperation in the months before becoming a father. Fathers-to-be go through hormone changes -- prolactin goes up, testosterone goes down -- which likely encourage paternal behavior, found a 2000 study in Evolution and Human Behavior.

The pheromones of a pregnant woman may waft over to her mate to spur these changes, said Brizendine, who was not involved with the study.

The expecting mom might be repaying a favor: Even before she is pregnant, male pheromones cause good-mom neurons to sprout in the female brain, found a 2008 study published in the journal Hormones and Behavior.

Daddy-play

Daddy-specific ways of playing with their kids -- more rough-housing, more spontaneity, more teasing -- can help kids learn better, be more confidant, and prepare them for the real world, studies have shown. Also, involved dads lessen risky kids' sexual behavior.

Fathers that actively parent tend to have lower testosterone levels, report several cross-cultural studies. While it is not known if the hormone levels cause the behavior or vice versa, researchers theorize that evolution has favored involved dads. Human children are among the neediest of the animal kingdom and good dads optimize the chance that their offspring -- and their genes -- survive.

Covet wedding bells, too

Women want to settle down, and men want to sow their wild oats forever, the refrain usually goes. But this might be one of the largest misconceptions stemming from the U.S. tendency of using undergrads as test subjects.

Infidelities are most likely to occur before men hit 30, found a study of Bolivian men published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society in 2007. After that, men primarily focus on providing for their families, the study found.

Of course, some men have a harder time with commitment than others -- a problem which could be genetic, according to a 2008 study in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. Men without the "promiscuity gene," an estimated 60 percent of the population, are more likely to marry. But that's not all. Both they and their wives are also more likely to report relative marital bliss, the researchers found.

Unfortunately, the association is so small, said the study's lead researcher Hasse Walum of the Karolinska Institute in Sweden, "you can't use it for screening potential mates." ( LiveScience)

Conducto ependimario

El conducto ependimario, también conocido como epéndimo medular, es el ventrículo de la médula espinal que contiene líquido cefalorraquídeo. Está ubicado en el centro de la médula espinal, en el centro de la comisura gris y la divide en una comisura gris anterior y en una comisura gris posterior.

El conducto ependimario está limitado en la parte superior con el cuarto ventrículo del rombencéfalo, y en la parte inferior, con el ventrículo terminal de Krause. En su trayecto su forma varía: es oval en la médula cervical, esférico en la médula torácica y triangular o en forma de T en la médula lumbar. Ésta estructura representa un vestigio del desarrollo embrionario del conducto neural.

Filum Terminale

El filum terminale es un filamento delgado de la médula que continúa hacia abajo terminando en la base del cóccix, mediante el ligamento coccígeo. Posee una longitud de 23 centímetros en el adulto y un grosor de 2 milímetros. Sigue la dirección del conducto raquídeo en el que ocupa la parte central rodeada por los nervios de la cola de caballo. El filum terminale puede ser dividido en dos partes: una parte superior, que llega a la segunda vertebra sacra; otra parte inferior, que se adhiere a la duramadre hasta llegar a la primera coccigea.

Pirámides (sistema nervioso)

Las pirámides se encuentran ubicadas en la porción anterior del bulbo raquídeo, entre el surco medio anterior y el surco antero lateral. Las pirámides son columnas abultadas de sustancia blanca que contienen paquetes de fibras motoras que descienden de la corteza cerebral para formar los tractos corticoespinales en la médula espinal. Unos 2,5 cm por debajo del puente, en las profundidades del surco medio anterior del bulbo raquídeo, se puede observar la decusación de las pirámides. Es en este lugar donde la mayoría de las fibras corticoespinales (90%) cruzan al lado opuesto para constituir el tracto corticoespinal lateral en el cordón lateral de la médula espinal.

Una proporción menor de fibras piramidales (10%)desciende ipsilateralmente para formar el tracto corticoespinal anterior en el cordón anterior de la médula espinal. Posterolateralmente a cada pirámide se observa una zona oval denominada oliva, la cual señala la posición del núcleo olivar inferior. En una región posterior a las olivas están los pedúnculos cerebelosos inferiores.

Bulbo raquídeo

El bulbo raquídeo es la mitad inferior del tronco del encéfalo. Es la continuación de la protuberancia anular, situada en la parte superior, y se continúa en la parte inferior con la médula espinal. El bulbo raquídeo tiene la forma de un cono truncado de vértice inferior, de aproximadamente 3 cm de longitud. Las funciones que éste desempeña son la transmisión de impulsos de la médula espinal al cerebro. También se localizan las funciones cardiacas, respiratorias, gastrointestinales y vasoconstrictoras.

Anatómicamente, el bulbo raquídeo se puede dividir en una cara anterior en cuya línea media presenta un surco longitudinal, continuación del surco medio anterior de la médula espinal que termina, hacia arriba, en el surco bulboprotuberancial en una depresión conocida como foramen caecum o agujero ciego. A ambos lados de este surco se observan dos relieves, las pirámides, que representan la vía piramidal, las que intercambian fibras nerviosas cruzando la línea media y forman la decusación de las pirámides.

Nursing Career Choices

Overview of your nursing career options

Nurses help other people by caring for them when they are sick or injured, or when they're physically restricted by old age or disability. There are various types of nursing careers options, including: adult, children's, mental health, and learning disabilities. Related careers include midwifery and health visiting. Here, we look at adult and children's nursing.

The work takes place in hospitals, general practices and clinics. Nurses can also work in nursing homes and residential homes, hospices, within the community, within education and the services, and within occupation health positions in industries. They usually work within a care team that also includes doctors and other health professionals.

Adult nurses work primarily in hospitals, within medical and surgical wards, plus intensive care, theatre and recovery, accident and emergency wards. To a lesser extent, they work in community settings. They provide medical care for patients suffering from illness or needing surgery. Nurses work within a multi-disciplinary team but are the main point of contact for patients. The nurse focuses on the patient's medical needs, together with the emotional needs and anxieties they're experiencing as a result of their condition.

Children's nurses care for sick children and provide support to their families. Patients range in age from new-born babies to near-adult teenagers. This is a separate area of nursing because children are still growing, so symptoms may affect their development in different ways to adults. Their emotional needs, and those of their families, are also very different to adults.

Nursing careers day-to-day activities

Adult nurses have to respond to a huge variety of situations relating to injury and illness. Duties can include: preparing patient care plans; daily monitoring and recording of the patient's condition; undertaking regular treatments; preparing patients for operations; checking and administering drugs and injections; setting up drips; assisting with tests; responding to emergencies; etc. Depending on their role within their organisation, they might also be scheduling the workloads of other nurses, or teaching junior and student nurses.

In addition to duties similar to those of adult nurses, children's nurses often have to manage the distress of the patients and their families. This means spending time talking and helping families through their crises, dealing with feelings such as panic, anxiety, anger, powerlessness and guilt.

Would a career as a nurse suit you?

It almost goes without saying that a nurse in either area needs to have good people skills and a desire to help others. Nurses must gain the trust of the patients they care for. Additionally, a practical approach and the stamina for long hours of physical work are vital. Attention to detail is a must, for nurses have highly responsible roles. The ability to work in teams and to take instruction while being able to think on your own initiative, is also essential.

Adult nurses must be able to make decisions in constantly changing circumstances, always remaining aware of the patients' condition. Patients' questions must be answered and fears allayed. The reward for such a hard and selfless line of work is the knowledge that you are making a difference.

Children's nurses clearly need to have an interest in children and their needs as individuals. You also need to be able to work sensitively with children's parents, as they will be responsible for the child's care once they leave hospital. You need to have a good, open-minded attitude to other people's different ways of relating to their children.

The NHS in the UK states that there are no national minimum entry requirements for nursing, as each Higher Education Institution (HEI) has its own criteria. However, for a diploma programme, requirements are usually around five GCSEs or equivalent at grade C or above in English Language or Literature and a Science subject. For a degree programme, requirements are usually five GCSEs plus 2 A-levels or equivalent. You'll need to be able to demonstrate evidence of literacy, numeracy and good character.

Salary / prospects for registered nursing careers

A newly qualified registered nurse can expect to earn between £17,610 and £19,437 a year, with additional London Weighting for those working in the capital. An experienced Staff Nurse earns from £18,818 to £22,725 a year. A nurse consultant can earn over £50,000 a year.

The National Health Service (NHS) is the largest employer in the UK. Opportunities in nursing are growing - once registered, they can undertake further training to specialise in a particular field. Future nursing career choices, include becoming a midwife, a health visitor or a district nurse, or you could apply to join one of the national health advice services. You could go on to teach, work in research, or take on leadership or managementroles.

alec.co.uk

Quiasma óptico

El quiasma óptico es la parte del cerebro donde se entrecruzan parcialmente las fibras axónicas de los nervios ópticos. En este entrecruzamiento la mitad de las fibras pasan del nervio óptico derecho a la cinta óptica izquierda, y viceversa. El quiasma óptico está situado en la fosa cerebral anterior, por delante de la silla turca.

Las imágenes formadas en cada una de las retinas se cruzan al lado opuesto del cerebro en el quiasma óptico. Esto permite que las imagenes de cada lado del campo de ambos ojos se transmitan al lado apropiado del cerebro. Luego del quiasma óptico los nervios ópticos pasan a llamarse tractos ópticos.

Ubicación del quiasma óptico en cara inferior del cerebro

Top Ten Most Popular Careers for 2010

As societies evolve, the economic and employment markets change continuously. Changing population ages, wowan re-entering employment and medical advances have a dramatic effect on certain job sectors, the most obvious of these being healthcare, housing and pensions.

Technological development has opened up a whole new field of jobs, while affecting the nature of almost every area of our society, and particularly the workplace.

On a more local level, certain careers can suddenly become popular for specific reasons. TV shows on interior design or veterinary hospitals can lead to a sudden interest in those areas, while media coverage about skills shortages can prompt an interest in other areas.

Here are the top ten most popular careers for 2010 in the US, Canada and the UK. The numbers of people entering employment in these areas is predicted to rise faster than in other career areas over the next five years.

If you are looking for the best paying careers (click here).

US Top Ten Most Popular Careers for 2010

• Network Systems Analysts: The development of IT has led to an increase in organizations seeking installation and maintenance of networked communications. Systems analysts solve problems related to networked computer technology.
• Physician's Assistant: Physician assistants are trained to provide diagnostic, therapeutic and preventative healthcare services, as overseen by a physician. Primary healthcare settings include family medicine and pediatrics.
• Medical Assistants: The growing healthcare sector means more administrative and clinical tasks need to be performed. Other medical assistants can help with clinical tasks. Typically, work takes place in the offices of physicians, chiropractors, podiatrists, ophthalmologists and other health practitioners.
• Medical Records and Health Information Technicians: Case and healthcare records are increasingly used for organizational management and ongoing evaluation of healthcare progress. Records might include patient medical history, symptoms, treatments, tests, outcomes, etc. Medical tests and information management are major growth areas.
• Software Engineers: As IT continues to evolve, so does the work of computer software engineers, who design and develop new computer software systems. The engineer analyses users' needs and designs software or programs to meet these needs.
• Physical Therapist Aides: The number of individuals with disabilities or limited physical function is growing, so the number of assistants who provide services to alleviate the difficulties is set to increase.
• Fitness Trainers: Aerobics instructors and fitness trainers lead groups and individuals in a range of exercise activities. More people are spending time and money on their leisure activities, meaning employment opportunities for fitness instructors will grow.
• Database Administrators: Many organizations now depend on the instant availability of data. Database administrators work with the relevant software to retrieve and present data. They need to understand every aspect of an organization's database system, from its performance to security and the platform it runs on.
• Veterinary Technicians: Expectations for leading edge veterinary care are rising as healthcare in general progresses. Veterinary technicians perform tests, and treat and diagnose medical conditions in animals. Work can take place in domestic pet surgeries, livestock management, wildlife medicine, or pharmaceutical sales or biomedical research.
• Dental Hygienists: As our healthcare involves an increasing emphasis on oral health and retention of natural teeth, work opportunities for dental hygienists are set to grow. Hygienists examine patients' gums and teeth, remove deposits, administer x-rays, and more.

Top Ten Most Popular Careers for 2010 in Canada

• In-Home Nurse: Under the supervision of doctors and more highly trained nurses, Licensed Practical and Licensed Vocational Nurses take care of individuals with health problems, whether they are sick, dying, or disabled. As the preference for care moves to the home, there will be more opportunities for In-Home Nurses.
• Nurse Practitioner: As healthcare provision continues to grow in non-hospital settings, the openings for nurse practitioners, who provide a level of direct medical care to patients and acts as a consultant to other practicing nurses, continue to increase.
• Programmer Analyst: Computer programmers write, test, and maintain the detailed instructions, called programs, which computers must follow to perform their functions. As digital technology continues to advance, the need for skilled analysts and programmers will continue to grow.
• Physician and Surgeon: The expansion of both the public and private healthcare sectors leads to an increasing number of specialist areas and an ever increasing need for physicians and surgeons.
• Teacher, Special Education: The greater awareness and development of educational approaches for students with special needs is leading to the expansion of this educational sector.
• Pharmacist: Today's pharmacists work with patients to determine what the patient's needs are and what care should be provided. This is called "pharmaceutical care", and it is all about identifying, resolving and preventing medication-related problems. Increasingly, pharmacists are working in a range of settings.
• Psychiatrist: Psychiatrists are physicians (medical doctors) who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness and emotional disorders, and act as consultants for other physicians. Psychiatrists work in hospitals, mental health clinics and private offices.
• Radiological Technician: Radiologic technologists - also known as x-ray technicians - explain procedures to patients, make images for physicians to interpret, and keep records of patients' treatments. Government economists expect job growth for x-ray techs to be faster than the average for all careers.
• Registered Nurses: Changes in the healthcare system continue to broaden the opportunities for nurses. An especially important trend is the increasing number of services that emphasize illness prevention and health promotion programs. Many of these are planned and staffed by registered nurses.
• Physiotherapist: Physiotherapists assess patients and plan and carry out individually designed treatment programs to maintain, improve or restore physical functioning and alleviate pain. Employment in hospitals, clinics, sports organizations, extended care facilities and private practice continues to expand.

Top Ten Most Popular Careers for 2010 in the UK

• Data Communications Analysts: More and more organizations now stay in touch internally and externally with other sites via networked communications. Analysts are responsible for overseeing the installation and maintenance of such networks, which are now becoming critical to the economic and social infrastructure.
• Marketing Officer: Once existing solely in the private sector, the marketing function is also now an intrinsic aspect of organizational life in the public and voluntary sector. The development of the Internet has served to add to the marketing role, meaning that marketing opportunities continue to grow.
• Software Engineers: The IT job sector grows in size as technological advances continue to be made. Computerized systems are ever more present in every area of organizational activity. Software engineers, who design and develop new applications to meet specific needs, are in ever greater demand.
• Medical Administrator: There is an increasing need for administrators and clerical staff in the healthcare sector, which continues to grow.
• Community Nurse: The development of primary healthcare sees more nursing activities taking place in the local community than ever before. The openings for community nurses, who perform non-surgical tasks in the home or other local settings, are increasing year on year.
• Advertising Agency Account Executive: The media sector is becoming ever more specialized and complex, with an increasing number of specialist publications, broadcast channels and online media. An increasing level of targeted marketing through advertising is seeing growth in the number of opportunities for advertising executives.
• Customer Services Assistant: The growth of Customer Relationship Management has led to the establishment of many more customer service teams, who are dedicated to responding to customer queries and fulfilling services requested by the telephone or online.
• Information Officer: Digital technology has enabled organizations to store more data more efficiently than in the past. Consequently, more personnel are needed who can offer specialist skills in operating database software and information networks, retrieving and disseminating information as necessary.
• Administrator: Secretarial jobs may be decreasing as the personal computer changes the shape of office processes, yet administrative jobs are growing, largely due to the centralization of organizational systems.
• Engineer: There is a growing demand for highly trained, skilled personnel who are able to meet the needs of the mechanical, electrical, electronic, automotive, biomedical and civil engineering sciences.

Ritmos Circadianos

Se conoce en la biología como ritmos circadianos a las oscilaciones de las variables biológicas en intervalos regulares de tiempo. Del latín circa: cerca, aproximadamente; y dia: día. El ritmo circadiano es un ciclo de 24 horas de los procesos fisiológicos y bioquímicos de los entes vivientes, como animales y plantas.

Los ritmos circadianos permiten a los organismos anticiparse y prepararse a los cambios medioambientales y precisos. La ritmicidad aparece como muy importante para regular y coordinar los procesos metabólicos internos. Los ritmos circadianos son endógenos y establecen una relación de fase estable con estos ciclos externos alargando o acortando su valor de periodo e igualándolo al del ciclo ambiental.

Todos los animales, las plantas y probablemente todos los organismos muestran algún tipo de variación rítmica fisiológica (tasa metabólica, producción de calor, floración, etc.) que suele estar asociada con un cambio ambiental rítmico. En todos los organismos eucariotas así como muchos procariotas y hongos se han documentado diferentes ritmos con períodos que van desde fracciones de segundo hasta años. Si bien son modificables por señales exógenas, estos ritmos persisten en condiciones de laboratorio, aun sin estímulos externos.

Tuber Cinereum

El tuber cinereum es una eminencia o estructura de sustancia gris en el suelo del tercer ventrículo que está unida a la hipófisis por el tallo pituitario o infundíbulo. Se encuentra en los tubérculos mamilares y el quiasma óptico y es contínuo a las sustancias perforada anterior. El infundíbulo, que es una prolongación cónica hueca, se proyecta desde el tuber cinereum.

El tuber cinereum alberga dos núcleos: núcleo tuberal y núcleo tuberalmamilar. La función del tuber cinereum es liberar histamina para controlar el ritmo circadiano, que son oscilaciones de las variables biológicas en intervalos regulares de tiempo.

Is Kissing Dangerous... ???!.

Is Kissing Dangerous... ???!. “You’d better be careful whom you kiss,” I was told. I was in high school and infectious mononucleosis (also called mono) was “going around.” Kids missed school for a month; and everyone was told it was because “too many people were kissing too many people.” As it turns out, there were only two or three kids who had mono, and they didn’t even know each other. The rest of it was hysteria, rumor or myth. But I always wondered about “kissing disease,” as many called it. Was it really dangerous? Was kissing really so risky?

Mono is caused by infection with Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV). After exposure to EBV, there are usually no symptoms at all – in fact, up to 95 percent of adults have antibody evidence of past EBV infection even though the vast majority recalled no related illness. For reasons that remain unknown, only some people develop mono after exposure to EBV, with fatigue, headache, muscle or joint aches, fever, enlarged lymph nodes, and sore throat. While it is true that the virus is shed in the saliva and can be transmitted by kissing, mono is not a highly contagious illness and it can also be transmitted by other means, such as coughing or sneezing. Preventing the spread of EBV is not easy since there are often no symptoms. Even when there are, one may be contagious before the illness is recognized.

Other infections can cause illness resembling mono, including cytomegalovirus (CMV) and other viral infections. Blood tests usually can establish the diagnosis of mono when necessary.

There is no effective therapy for mono, although acetaminophen or ibuprofen and fluids can be helpful in relieving symptoms. The vast majority of people who have it recover completely within a week or two. Occasionally fatigue lasts more than month, but even then, a return to normal is expected. Because the spleen may become enlarged and could rupture if injured, persons with mono are advised to avoid contact sports for at least a month after recovery.

Infections related to kissing

During any exchange of bodily fluids, there is a risk of transmitting infectious agents. However, the body has defense systems in place to prevent infection, though these work better for some infections than others. For example, HIV and hepatitis B are relatively easy to transmit through sexual intercourse, while hepatitis C is not as readily spread sexually.

Similarly, some infections are harder to transmit through kissing than others. HIV is rarely (if ever) transmitted through kissing; when it does occur it probably relates to open sores in the mouth that allow exposure to blood, not just saliva. On the other hand, many other viral infections are easy to transmit by kissing: herpes simplex virus, the cause of cold sores or fever blisters, is a common example. In fact, the illnesses commonly transmitted by kissing, including mono, have a minimal impact on overall health.

The bottom line

While it is true that EBV is easy to transmit from one person to another through kissing, there is usually no recognized illness associated with the infection. Even when mono does follow, complete recovery in a short period is the rule. While “kissing disease” is real, kissing is rarely a danger to your health. ( msn.com )

Infertile women may have more sexual problems

Women undergoing treatment for infertility may be less satisfied with their sex lives and have a greater risk of sexual dysfunction than women with normal fertility, a small study suggests.

Researchers found that among 119 women seen at their infertility clinic, 40 percent scored low enough on a standard questionnaire of sexual function to put them at "high risk" of sexual dysfunction. That compared with 25 percent of 99 fertile women who were used as a control group.

Specifically, the infertility patients reported more problems with desire and arousal; they did not differ from fertile women in physical symptoms like vaginal dryness or pain during sex. Nor did they report more difficulty reaching orgasm, according to findings published in the journal Fertility and Sterility.

The study cannot point to the reasons for the findings, according to the researchers, led by Dr. Leah S. Millheiser of Stanford University Medical Center in California.

Past studies, they note, have found both infertility and its treatment can negatively affect women's and men's emotional well-being or create marital tension. In addition, couples trying to conceive may eventually feel the pressures of "sex-on-demand," which can drain their satisfaction with their sex lives, the researchers say.

In this study, women with fertility problems had a lower average score when it came to rating their sex-life satisfaction. And 34 percent said they'd had a decline in satisfaction since their infertility diagnosis.

The findings are based on 119 women who had been referred to the Stanford infertility clinic and 99 sexually active women in the same age range who were recruited from the university gynecology clinic. Both groups were similar in terms of average weight, education levels and racial and ethnic makeup.

All of the women completed a standard questionnaire on female sexual function; scores lower than 26.5 are considered to denote a high risk of sexual dysfunction. The average score in the infertility group was 27.1, compared with 28.7 among fertile women.

Forty percent of women with fertility problems scored low enough to be considered high-risk, versus one-quarter of fertile women. Infertile women also tended to have intercourse less often -- an average of seven times per month, compared with just over nine times per month for fertile women.

"With this study," Millheiser and her colleagues write, "we hope to highlight infertility as a potential risk factor for sexual dysfunction."

They add that further studies that measure additional factors like depression, marital problems and male partners' sexual function are needed. ( Reuters Health )

Guidelines for Communicating With Doctors

When going to a doctor's appointment, just showing up is not enough. There are things you can do to support yourself in getting maximum value from the visit.

Many people see doctors as experts who are going to fix them and therefore give over all sense of personal responsibility, waiting to be told what to do. The optimum visit is a dialogue between two experts -- don't forget that you are the expert at living in your body!

Here are guidelines for creating more productive visits with doctors.

1. Be Clear About Your Reasons For Seeing The Doctor When Making The Appointment:

They need to know the severity and urgency of your complaint to determine when to schedule the appointment and how much time to allow. What you might dismiss as minor may be a red flag of a potentially serious problem. Conversely, something causing you serious discomfort may require time to heal rather than medical intervention and therefore not be seen as urgent by the doctor.

2. Come Prepared And On Time:

It's a great idea to maintain a notebook or computer file where you keep track of your medical history. Then, when you come to the doctor, bring an up-to-date copy of your medical history and a list of your medications (both prescription and over-the-counter) and any natural remedies, treatments or other therapies you are using. If you are seeing other doctors/health practitioners about your symptoms/diagnosis, be sure to bring relevant materials from them as well as your own notes. Consider typing up a list of your questions and concerns for the doctor to help insure that all your needs are addressed. Be sure to leave space on your list to take notes during the appointment including keeping track of follow-up actions.

Many doctors chronically run late for their appointments. Arrive on time anyway in the event that they are running on schedule. If the doctor is late, consider the fact that it is probably because someone else is getting the help they need. Bring your own reading material and carry it with you throughout your appointment. If you work yourself up into a tizzy over the delay, you are likely to be less effective getting your own needs met during your appointment.

3. Be Specific And Factual About Your Concerns/Symptoms:

Prioritize your concerns and share them with your doctor at the beginning of your appointment. Ask to address what concerns you most first. If reporting a new problem, describe the frequency, duration, location and severity of your symptoms as well as what makes it better or worse, any treatments you have tried so far and with what response. Also mention any relevant family history.

4. Get Right To The Point:

Don't beat around the bush. Stay focused on the issue at hand. Try not to ramble or go off topic or to get too emotional if you can help it. If you have a friendly rapport with your doctor, handle your business first and then you can chit chat later if time permits.

5. Be Assertive And Ask For What You Want And Need:

Sometimes doctors forget their manners, aren't listening to you or answering your questions to your satisfaction. Let them know how they are failing to meet your needs. You are paying for their time and deserve their undivided attention. If the doctor seems distracted or is rushing you, express your concern in a positive way. For example, you might say, "I know you are busy, but I really need you to help me understand what is going on with my body." Getting mad usually doesn't help -- but giving honest and clear feedback usually does.

6. Ask For Further Explanation If You Disagree Or Don't Understand:

Your job is to give the doctor information and feedback. So, do that. Let them know if you don't follow what they are saying or have a different point of view that you want them to consider. Remember this is a dialogue between two experts.

7. If You Want Your Doctor's Opinion About A New Drug Or Procedure You Heard About, Ask How It Applies To You:

You may not like or agree with your doctor's point of view but should certainly take it into account in any decisions you make. You can always ask for more of an explanation or consult other doctors, but at some point you need to make an informed decision.

8. Summarize And Be Sure You Understand The Follow-up Prescribed:

Columbia University women's health expert Marianne Legato, MD, suggests you leave the appointment with an understanding of why the doctor thinks you have the symptoms or condition you are experiencing; what lab tests he or she is ordering and why, the doctor's plan for contacting you about the results and a plan for easing your symptoms. Don't leave with unanswered questions or confusion. Make sure that you have captured everything in your notes.

Remember, doctors are experts we consult about our health, but ultimately we are left to make our own decisions about what advice, prescriptions and protocols we follow and which we don't. Take good care of yourself. ( huffingtonpost.com )

International Nurse Graduates (Overseas Trained Nurses)

Information for Nurses Wishing to Relocate to Australia

Nursing in Australia Brochure (PDF file, 417kb)

Nursing and midwifery in Victoria ? a new approach to your career (PDF file, 344kb)

Visa and registration requirements for nurses and midwives (PDF, 385kb)

Living and working in Victoria as a health professional (PDF, 460kb)

Pre-registration scholarships for international nurses 2009 - 2010

Visit Sites : http://www.health.vic.gov.au/nursing/career/overseas

Sistema ventricular

El sistema ventricular, o ventriculos cerebrales, es un conjunto de estructuras huecas, o cavidades, que se encuentran dentro del cerebro y que contienen líquido cefaloraquídeo y se continuan con el canal central de la médula espinal.

El sistema ventricular esta formado por el tercer y cuarto ventrículos y los ventrículos laterales, siendo estos últimos los más grande con la forma de una C que envuelven ligeramente a los ganglios basales.

Los cuatro ventrículos del sistema ventricular están conectados por vías estrechas. Normalmente, el líquido cerebroespinal fluye a través de los ventrículos, sale a espacios cerrados que sirven de reservorios en la base del cerebro, baña la superficie del cerebro y la médula espinal y, luego, es absorbido en la corriente sanguínea.

El líquido cerebroespinal del sistema ventricular tiene tres funciones vitales importantes: 1) mantener flotante el tejido cerebral, actuando como colchón o amortiguador; 2) servir de vehículo para transportar los nutrientes al cerebro y eliminar los desechos; y 3) fluir entre el cráneo y la espina dorsal para compensar por los cambios en el volumen de sangre intracraneal.

Men's love affair with leggy women is a myth - research

Men don't lust after long-legged women after all, according to new research. While many women would do anything to have a supermodel physique, those of more average proportions can take heart. Men, apparently, don't hanker after girls with legs that go on forever.

Or at least new research suggests that men's love affair with lengthy ladies is just a myth and that they actually prefer them a little less leggy,the Herald Sun reports.

To pin down the most attractive legs, UK researchers asked more than 1000 men and women to rate a series of images of female bodies.

Sorry Elle but men don't find your perfect pins all that appealing, or so they say / Supplied

In each case the females' legs were lengthened or shortened to alter their leg-to-body ratio but their overall height stayed the same.

While most women surveyed thought men lusted after longer legs, the University of Westminster research found men preferred women of average height - where their legs accounted for half of their overall height.

The findings back up research earlier this year that showed men preferred the shape of ordinary women, equivalent to dress size 14, than fashion models and Playboy centrefolds.

Tall women were seen by men as abnormal while extremely short women were surprisingly seen as unhealthy.

Men also said women with short bodies and very long legs were unattractive because they believed they might have trouble carrying a baby.

The men, by and large, preferred mid-length legs - that is legs that accounted for half of overall height.

The researchers found leg-to-body ratio was a crucial factor in determining how attracted men were to women, while men and women had very differing ideas of what was hot and what was not.

They also concluded clothes interfered with a woman's leg-to-body ratio, changing how attractive they were to men. ( news.com.au )

Ventrículos laterales

Los ventrículos laterales son dos cavidades, una en la base de cada hemisferio cerebral, llenas de líquido cefaloraquídeo y forman parte del sistema ventricular y del telencéfalo. Los ventrículos laterales están comunicados con el tercer ventrículo a través del foramen de Monro. Se sabe que el volumen de los mismos se incrementa con la edad, pero también se hallan agrandados en varias enfermedades neurológicas y psiquiátricas como en pacientes con esquizofrenia y desorden bipolar.

Love not enough to keep couples together

Age, previous relationships also are factors in whether marriage lasts . Living happily ever after needn't only be for fairy tales. Australian researchers have identified what it takes to keep a couple together, and it's a lot more than just being in love.

A couple's age, previous relationships and even whether they smoke or not are factors that influence whether their marriage is going to last, according to a study by researchers from the Australian National University.

The study, entitled "What's Love Got to Do With It," tracked nearly 2,500 couples — married or living together — from 2001 to 2007 to identify factors associated with those who remained together compared with those who divorced or separated.

It found that a husband who is nine or more years older than his wife is twice as likely to get divorced, as are husbands who get married before they turn 25.

Children also influence the longevity of a marriage or relationship, with one-fifth of couples who have kids before marriage — either from a previous relationship or in the same relationship — having separated compared to just nine percent of couples without children born before marriage.

Women who want children much more than their partners are also more likely to get a divorce.

A couple's parents also have a role to play in their own relationship, with the study showing some 16 percent of men and women whose parents ever separated or divorced experienced marital separation themselves compared to 10 percent for those whose parents did not separate.

Also, partners who are on their second or third marriage are 90 percent more likely to separate than spouses who are both in their first marriage.

Not surprisingly, money also plays a role, with up to 16 percent of respondents who indicated they were poor or where the husband — not the wife — was unemployed saying they had separated, compared with only nine percent of couples with healthy finances.

And couples where one partner, and not the other, smokes are also more likely to have a relationship that ends in failure.

Factors found to not significantly affect separation risk included the number and age of children born to a married couple, the wife's employment status and the number of years the couple had been employed.

The study was jointly written by Dr Rebecca Kippen and Professor Bruce Chapman from The Australian National University, and Dr Peng Yu from the Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs. ( Reuters.com )

Mesencéfalo

El mesencéfalo es la parte superior del tronco del encéfalo, separando el puente troncoencefálico o puente de Varolio y el cerebelo con el diencéfalo. Su eje longitudinal se inclina hacia atras y los flagelos se alejan de la línea media en su ascenso por el foramen de Pacchioni para penetrar en el hemisferio cerebral correspondiente. El límite con el puente troncoencefálico está bien definido, por el surco pontomensencefálico y el límite superior está determinado por las cintillas ópticas. Está atravesado por un conducto estrecho, el acueducto de Silvio (acueducto cerebral), ocupado por líquido cefalorraquídeo. Esta integrado por el tectum (techo) que se localiza en la porción dorsal del mesencéfalo, y el tegmento, que es la porción del mesencefalo situada debajo del tectum. Incluye en el pedazo, varios núcleos que controlan los movimientos oculares, la materia gris periacueductual (constituida por cuerpos celulares de neuronas), el núcleo rojo y la sustancia negra que son componentes importantes del sistema motor.

Anatómicamente el mesencéfalo posee una cara anterior donde se observa en la línea media una depresión profunda, la fosa interpeduncular, limitada a cada lado por el pedúnculo cerebral quedando así constituido un espacio triangular de base superior, formada por el quiasma óptico y las cintillas ópticas. En la parte anterior encontramos el tuber cinereum y en la parte posterior existe una zona perforada por pequeños vasos sanguíneos, de color grisáceo, denominada sustancia perforada posterior, limitado hacia arriba por los tubérculos mamilares. En un pequeño surco situado en el lado medial del pie del pedúnculo cerebral tiene su origen aparente el nervio motor ocular común o III par craneal.

Cara lateral por la que ascienden los brazos conjuntivales superior e inferior con una dirección anterolateral. El brazo conjuntival superior conecta el tubérculo cuadrigémino anterior con el cuerpo geniculado lateral o externo y la cintilla óptica. El brazo conjuntival inferior conecta el tubérculo cuadrigémino posterior con el cuerpo geniculado medial o interno. Bien hacia atrás se observa un surco proundo, el surco lateral del istmo, que marca el borde inferior del pedúnculo cerebeloso superior y divide al pedúnculo cerebral en dos zonas: una anterior o pie y la otra posterior o calota, de forma triangular y constituye el triángulo de Reil.

Cara posterior donde se encuentran los cuatro colículos o tubérculos cuadrigéminos, que son eminencias redondeadas divididas en pares anteriores o superiores (centros reflejos visuales) y posteriores o inferiores (centros reflejos auditivos) por el surco cruciforme cuyo extremo anterior está en relación con la epífisis y su extemo posterior se relaciona con el vértice de una lámina nerviosa triangular, muy delgada ubicada en el vértice anterosuperior del 4º ventrículo entre los pedúnculos cerebelosos superiores, la válvula de Vieussens. a este nivel, por debajo del tubérculo cuadrigémino posterior tiene su origen aparente el nervio patético, troclear o IV par craneal.

Menopause - Traumatic Condition for Women

At the time of birth a baby girl possesses 2 million egg cells, by the time she hits puberty, and there are about 300,000 left. Out of these only 400/500 mature fully to be released in the menstrual cycle, the rest degenerate.

During the fertile years of a woman's life, the pituitary gland secretes hormones that cause a new egg to be released from its follicle every month. This follicle also increases the production of ESTROGEN and PROGESTERONE which line the lining of the uterus to receive and nourish a baby after conception .If this doesn't happen the levels of ESTROGEN and PROGESTERONE drop, breaking the lining of the uterus, causing menstruation.

Menopause

By the mid thirties the ovaries begin to decline in hormone production .In the late forties the process accelerates and hormones fluctuate more, resulting in irregular periods or heavy bleeding and by the early fifties periods stop altogether, resulting in menopause.

Menopause is considered complete when a woman doesn't bleed for 1 whole year. With the end of the menstrual cycle and the onset of menopause a woman loses her ability to conceive children.

There are mainly three kinds of menopause:

General Menopause

General menopause occurs at about age 50.but like the onset of menstruation its timing can vary from person to person. For ex. Women who smoke tend to reach menopause earlier than women who don't.

Premature Menopause/Surgical Menopause

Women who undergo operations to have both their ovaries removed surgically undergo such menopause. They are more likely to be affected by menopausal symptoms than those who experience it naturally; the reason for this is still to be known.

When only one ovary is removed menopause usually occurs naturally. When hysterectomy is done and ovaries remain, menstrual periods stop, however other menopausal symptoms occur at the same age as they would naturally. But some women who have had their uterus removed are liable to experience menopausal symptoms at a younger age.

Menopause Symptoms

• Frequent hot flashes

• Depression

• Memory problems

• Change in sleeping habits

• Mood swings

• Loss of sexual appetite

Menopause Treatment

Menopause is a period of transition in a woman's life; mostly women become depressed because they are unable to transgress into this territory. It is best to deal with menopause by coming to terms with it, accepting the change instead of fighting it, talking to loved ones, eating right and also taking hormone therapy and sometimes injecting PROGESTERONE and ESTROGEN synthetically. ( articlealley.com )

Cuarto ventrículo

El cuarto ventrículo, o ventriculus quartus, es una cavidad de forma irregular, ubicada en el romboencéfalo, entre el bulbo raquídeo, la protuberancia y el istmo por delante y el cerebelo por detrás. Es una de las cuatro cavidades del sistema ventricular y que están llenas de líquido cefaloraquídeo y conectadas entre sí.

El cuarto ventrículo se continúa con el conducto central de la médula espinal por abajo, con el acueducto de Silvio por arriba, y por sus aberturas lateral y media (agujeros de Luchska y Magendie) con el espacio subaracnoideo.

A Heart Attack Shouldn't Kill Your Sex Life

A Heart Attack Shouldn't Kill Your Sex Life

A Heart Attack Shouldn't Kill Your Sex Life. Surviving a heart attack can kill your sex life. But it doesn't have to, and a new study shows doctors play a key role in whether it does.

Patients were less likely to resume having sex if their doctors did not talk about when it was safe, the study found.

Many heart attack survivors fear that a tryst could land them back in the hospital - or even in the graveyard. But the chance of that is extremely small, doctors say.

"People perceive it might kill them. And it's not just the person with the heart attack, but also their partner," said Dr. Stacy Tessler Lindau, a gynecologist and sexuality researcher at the University of Chicago.

"If you can walk up two flights of stairs or do moderate exercise, then it's OK to have sex," she said.

Lindau led the study, the largest ever on this topic, and was to present results Friday at an American Heart Association conference in Washington.

It involved 1,184 male and 576 female heart attack survivors taking part in a bigger nationwide study, funded by the federal government. The average age was 60.

Less than half the men and only about a third of the women said advice about resuming sex was part of the instructions they got when leaving the hospital. Even fewer had that talk with their doctors over the next year.

One year after their heart attacks, more than two-thirds of the men and 40 percent of the women reported some sexual activity. They were 30 percent to 40 percent more likely to be having sex if they had talked with a doctor about it.

Men were more likely to be sexually active and married before the heart attack, and to maintain their sex life after it.

Some people actually reported more sex after their heart attacks, but this was the exception rather than the rule, Lindau said.

A heart attack should not keep people from enjoying sex, said Dr. Edward Havranek, a cardiologist at Denver Health Medical Center and leader of the Heart Association conference.

"The risk of having a heart attack during sex is really, really low," he said. "The amount of actual physical exertion people have during sex is actually lower than one might think. It's not as demanding as shoveling snow."

Doctors say it is safe to resume sex as soon as the patient feels better and can handle moderate exercise. Chest pain during sex means you should stop and consult a doctor, Lindau said.

Depression and mood swings are common after a heart attack and can dampen interest in sex, but this usually goes away within three months, says advice from the Heart Association.

It has these tips for resuming sex:

• Prepare by improving your physical condition and personal hygiene.
• Choose a time when you're rested, relaxed and free from daily stress.
• Wait one to three hours after eating a full meal.
• Pick a familiar, peaceful setting that's free from interruptions.

( Associated Press)